Indigo is one of the oldest and most precious of dyes; its early history is well documented in the records of various excavations at archaeological sites around the world. Amongst other textiles of antiquity were shrouds of Egyptian mummies trimmed with indigo stripes dating from the 3rd millennium BC; also found were remains of indigo vats at Mohenjodaro. Ancient frescoes, manuscripts and textiles reflect the extensive use of blue and are a testament to the lustre and durability of the colours even after centuries of exposure to heat, dust, light and moisture.
Indigo has always been the most prized and versatile of all dyes for its various protective and curative properties, as well as being the only source of blue available in nature. While other primary colours can be extracted from a number of sources – browns from cutch, walnut, raintree, yellows from marigold, jackwood, onion skins and reds from madder, lac, cochineal, – indigo is the single source of blue, ranging from the palest shades of sky blue and turquoise to the highly prized blue black nilambari, also the most favoured shade of indigo used in Japan, China and many Arab and African countries. Combined with yellow, red and olive it yields vivid shades of green, purple and teal. Its unique chemistry makes it colourfast and compatible with all fibres.
A leaf extract, the term is derived from the Greek term ‘indikon’ (Latinised as ‘’indicum’) indicating a substance from India. ‘Nil’ is the original Sanskrit term for indigo and it has been known variously as neel, neer and nilu in South Asia, nele and anlye in Europe, nil and annil in the Arab world, anil and anilera in Latin America, liao-lan and mu-lan in China, tade ai and ai in Japan, elu and gara in Africa and similar indigenous terms elsewhere. Isastis tinctoria, the European woad, remains its only source of indigo. Polygonum tinctorium, also known as “dyers knotweed”, and strabilanthes flaccidifolius are used extensively in Japan and China. Longchocarpus cyanescens (Yoruba indigo) is the main indigenous indigo of Africa and is used in many countries there. Whatever its plant source, indigo extraction and dyeing techniques can differ from country to country. Unlike other natural dyes it is the only cold dye which has to be prepared methodically in a vat; yarn or fabric require multiple immersions to build up depth of colour and ensure fastness.
Indigo’s magical dyeing process has mystified and fascinated users and observers alike as it oxidizes first from yellow to green and then to a final vivid blue, giving birth to numerous myths, rituals and legends. Spirits and gods have been associated with it, inspiring dyers to seek their blessings before beginning their work. Horiyuki Shindo, professor at Kyoto University and an international exper on indigo, creates his own Aizen Meiou (Aizen Shin), the god of indigo, every year. It is made in the form of an exquisite handmade-paper kimono featuring a sketch of the animal representing that particular year, dip-dyed in indigo to bless and safeguard his work. Although it may not seem so, preparation of the indigo vat and its dyeing techniques are far more complex than other natural dyes; any distraction or negligence in its handling can cause irreparable damage to the end products.
It is curious that in spite of its complexities in extraction and dyeing practices different countries developed blue dye at different periods from different species of the sample plant, with little or no connections between regions, let alone countries. Universally valued, indigo has been extensively used for both daily wear and rituals amongst many rural communities as well as persons of prestige and power across the world.
As a trade commodity indigo was highly coveted and reflected the importance of the country controlling it. European planters of the East India Company cultivated indigo in Bengal, earning unimaginable wealth for themselves. At its peak between 1834 and 1847 as much as 3,500 tonnes of high quality indigo was exported from India – that is, 80% of the world’s requirements – with the plantations employingbetween 3 and 4 million workers.
However, the coercive measures utilized by the planters caused immense resentment amongst the farmers and took its toll on the production of indigo in Bengal. Combined with the discovery of cheaper synthetic indigo and its aggressive marketing within the captive colonial market in India, there was a drastic decline in the use of natural indigo both within South Asia and internationally. In spite of problems relating to its cost and availability, indigo has retained its importance in traditional strongholds like India, Japan and China, albeit in a much reduced state. It received a boost in recent times when Levi Strauss introduced and patented hardwearing overalls in the USA in 1873, the precursors of jeans, made from indigo dyed cloth from Nimes, France (de Nimes, hence ‘denim’). Jeans subsequently swept the world as a fashion statement and are today considered the universal wear of men and women alike.
After the initial years, synthetic indigo took over altogether. International designers have redesigned and tailored them, creating their own expensive brands, and the jeans industry is today worth billions of dollars. Even a small fraction of this demand would far outstrip present day world wide production of natural indigo. Even without it, the present supply of indigo is well below the existing demand for it, as was apparent at the recent UNESCO-CCI International Natural Dye Symposium held last year when innumerable individuals and organizations sought to import indigo from Bangladesh.
Shortage in the production and supply of natural indigo is the real problem. This arises partly from the fact that growers produce in isolation and often find it hard to connect with buyers. It is equally true that users often find it just as difficult to identify suppliers. This gap has forced many traditional indigo producers to opt out and switch to cultivating crops that are in demand in the local markets.
Ecological concerns worldwide have generated strong interest in organic foods, natural fibres and dyes, etc. As a result there has been a resurgence of interest in natural dyes, particularly indigo, which also has great economic potential. This, in turn, has initiated national and international projects and conferences on indigowhich have brought together multi-disciplinary participants like researchers, scientists, producers, users and marketing specialists. The discussions andexchanges of expertise have created a crucial link between the various actors, being a first step towards building a network for sharing of essential information and support services for the increased production, use and marketing of natural indigo. Some of the earliest indigo conferences were held in Amsterdam in 1985.and “Sublime Indigo” was organized by the Museum of Marseilles in 1987. Unfortunately, the proceedings and publications were in Dutch and French, which limited accessibility.
The first major Asian seminar and workshop, “Revival of Natural Indigo Dyes”, was co-sponsored by UNESCO and WCC-Asia Pacific Region in 1998 in Thailand. It combined an overview of the past and present status of indigo along with a number of demonstration workshops. It was pragmatic and inspirational. Producers and users were greatly encouraged to exchange information and expertise.
For the first time Bangladesh and others could share their experiences of indigo revival programmes with other countries undertaking similar projects; i.e. Indigo producers from Pakistan met buyers from across the region. Most interestingly, they shared the outstanding experiences of one individual, Patricia Cheesman, who cultivates, extracts, dyes and markets indigo textiles within Thailand and abroad. The conference was successful in encouraging a number of participants to move from synthetic to natural indigo and explore options of reviving indigo in their own countries. This event was followed by two excellent interactive workshops organized by Dastkar-Andhra, “Neelu Rangu” in 2000 and 2001 at the indigo centres of Chinnur and Vallur. Participants were all individuals directly involved with indigo – cultivators, dyers, printers, NGOs, local officials and marketing organizations – sharing information and expertise on all aspects of it, and had a hands-on opportunity to create an indigo vat and dye in it. Today Dastkar-Andhra has become a major producer of an entire range of natural dye textiles, especially indigo.
In fact, these workshops inspired Bangladesh to make a successful transition from an experimental indigo revival programme to a full fledged commercial production and marketing project of the Mennonite Central Committee (MCC). An interesting recent development in Bangladesh has been the discovery that indigofera tinctoria was always being cultivated by farmers in North Bengal as fertilizer; so, in fact, the indigo plant had never been lost, only its usage had changed. This has encouraged CARE Bangladesh to experiment and produce indigo successfully from the same source. In neighbouring India, corporate giants Tata, have undertaken a new project to cultivate indigo in Coorg; these are precisely the kind of initiatives required to ensure that indigo regains its importance.
In the last two decades several Asian countries have revived or increased the use of natural indigo and are working exclusively with them, producing high quality textiles for national and international markets. The interaction between fine craftsmanship and design innovations has combined to create a significant rise in the demand for indigo textiles as casual and designer wear, accessories, home furnishings and artworks. Important players amongst the countries involved are India, Japan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Thailand and Malaysia.
Collaborations between countries have also been enriching experiences. For example, silk and cotton scarves woven in Bangladesh and India have been dyed in Japanese indigo grown in Devon! Jenny Balfour-Paul, author and indigo expert, grows it in her garden and dyes the scarves every year with her friend, the renowned designer Lucy Goffin. South Korea, Oman and Taiwan have special programmes to revive traditional indigo in their countries, while isolated pockets of rural communities elsewhere continue to cultivate indigo for their own use. El Salvador is the main producer of indigo in Latin America, marketing its stock through “Azules”, the national association of indigo growers, while Mexico has two centres in its southern region. Countries like Venezuela and Guatemala import indigo from the region for their requirements. In Europe a major EU funded programme, Spindigo, has been initiated to reintroduce indigo from woad on an industrial scale. It is an Europe-wide collaboration led by academics and commercial organizations applying biotechnological processes to develop large scale high quality indigo for the 21st century. This will indeed be an important breakthrough in meeting the growing demand for indigo. The Eden Project in Cornwall is experimenting with the cultivation of different species of indigo under controlled conditions to ascertain whether they can be grown in the different climatic zones of Europe.
To date the most successful project in Europe is a private initiative “Bleu de Lectoure” set up by a Belgian and American couple, Henri & Denise Lambert, based in France. Their product range includes paints, art materials and high quality fabric which is being used on the catwalks of Paris by designers like Olivier Lapidus. From a small beginning they have moved into commercial-scale production within a few years. There is no reason why successful projects like this cannot be replicated elsewhere.
The growing interest of fashion designers like Jean Paul Gaultier, Vivienne Westwood, Balenciaga and John Galliano in indigo denim for haute couture and branded jeans by Calvin Klein and others is very promising for the future of indigo. Combined with the international demand for value added indigo textiles by designers like Jurgen Lehl, Rohit Bal, Anamika Khanna – and the creative skill of young generation designers – who are increasingly using Asian fabrics – there is a tremendous opportunity to access not only the high end of the market, but also the more affordable casual wear.
Which brings us back to my initial concern about how to ensure that the cultivation and supply of indigo can keep up with future demand. Present users are well aware of the erratic and inadequate supply of indigo.This is deeply frustrating and stressful for organizations trying to maintain export delivery schedules and expand the domestic market and reflects the difficulty that many growers face in identifying regular buyers.
It is well past time to develop sustainable strategies and projects to widen and increase the cultivation of indigo as a cash crop for farmers. Only a concerted effort by all stakeholders – producers, users, craft organisations, NGOs, marketing agencies and, most importantly, government bodies and policy makers – can fulfil the present and future world demand for indigo. Perhaps this is the best forum for setting up an International Network of Indigo which can take up this crucial task. Broadly its initial mandate could address issues related to:
- research and development for increased production and standardization of quality.
- Creation of a reliable distribution network.
- Development of a system to authenticate natural indigo (far too much synthetic indigo is currently passed off as natural!)
Without proactive programmes and policies to support natural indigo, there is a very real danger of losing out once again to aggressive marketing by synthetic dye-producing multinationals who in recent years have started making attempts to undermine natural dyes by initiating a campaign of active disinformation and spreading false claims through journals and at conferences – for example, at the Soil Association Seminar held in the UK in 2005, Ciba-Geigy claimed natural dyes were not colour-fast or financially viable. Because of their resources, media access and widespread reach this could have a very damaging impact, which is why we need to wake up to the very real dangers involved.
We simply cannot afford to waste time or ignore these threats.
